Pygmalion is a play of conflict between women and the man of Generosity.

OR

Examine Eliza/Higgins's relationship in this light.

Or

Discuss the Battle of Wills as depicted in the play.

Pygmalion Notes

Answer: The influence of Lifeforce upon a woman’s life is twofold. Its main purpose is to multiply and in this regard a woman pursuits the man of her choice and casts her charm and sexual appeal in all possible ways to ensure him. The Men’s potentiality of becoming the best father of his children mostly determines his choice. This is the general theory of how the life force works. But, such is not in some cases. In these cases, the man who is talented and generous does not yield to the allurement of a woman. Here, the purpose of life force assumes a different meaning. Lifeforce, in these cases instead of multiplying life, exerts its energy to elevate life.

Upon a generous man, lifeforce works with its usual intensity. In an ordinary case, a woman sacrifices her man to live up to her purpose, similarly, a generous man sacrifices a woman to attain his higher aspiration. This makes him an enigma to other people. He does not seem successful in a practical world lacking the conventional making of a good husband. He devotes his energy to achieve his goal, not settling down as a family man. This gives birth to the conflict between him and the woman. However, generally, a generous man commits his life to realize his views of beauty and make others too realize it. These men of generosity are mostly indifferent to the charm of the opposite sex. They excel in their profession as men of letters, artists, and inventors. Their talents are too vast to simply remain constricted in eulogizing women. In Pygmalion too this conflict becomes a major theme that originates from Eliza Higgins's relationship.

In Pygmalion shaw delineates the character of Higgins as an Eminent phonetician whose expertise is above any doubts despite his eccentricities. He is boorish by nature, while sketching his character Shaw has in his mind the character of a reputed phonetician in real life, Henry sweet. However, Higgins is intellectual, confident, and successful in his life and also a popular figure in the elite class as revealed from Mrs. Higgins comment:

“Henry, you are the life and soul of the Royal societies Soirees”. His confidence makes him accept the challenge of passing off Eliza, as a Dutchess. But as he is generous, does not contemplate Eliza as his future wife. His talent only focuses only in transforming Eliza and once he is successful in his mission, he loses his interest in Eliza.

Eliza develops into a superior human being after Higgins's experiment to complete. She transforms externally as well as internally her well acquaintance with Higgins makes her sense his indifference to feminine charm and her natural instinct wants her of Higgin’s incapability of becoming a good husband and good father so, she revolts against Higgins compelling personality and insensitiveness, steps out of his house and marries Freddy who is young whom she finds has the better potentiality of becoming a good husband and a good father. Nevertheless, Higgins wants her to stay with them. As a scholar he is independent but somehow he acquaintance with Eliza makes him dependent upon her on the domestic front. Her assistance helps him to commit himself entirely to his profession as a phonetician but Eliza does not dream to led a life like that, not even she is ready to bear passively the bully of Figgins, her defiance basically engenders from the clash of wills.

Pygmalion is a story of human creation. In the play, Eliza evolves as a new woman. The famous critic NFO Donell opines that apart from social criticism and didacticism in the humorous note as reflected in the play, conflict of will is the major theme that signifies human relations, such human relations based upon a conflict of wills hint at Shaw’s conception of human nature and human relationship. When Eliza transforms her personality also undergoes changes. She had off his inhibition, she is now confident to take on ambitious Higgins on an equal platform that gives rise to a conflict of wills.

Alfred Dolittle, the father of Eliza is a victim of Psychological conflict. Social discrimination has labeled the man as an undeserving poor. Deprived of higher living conditions, he chooses to live on his own terms.

In his Sphere, middle-class morality has no access which to him is another name of hypocrisy. But his course of life changes suddenly when he accidentally acquires an amazing amount of well. He no more belongs to his previous class and does not find himself comfortable with the newly acquires class. He is now bound by middle-class morality that he used to earlier. In his new identity, his free will remains suppressed by intimidating moral convictions. This intimidating influence of the higher class is also experienced by Eliza when she comes to Higgins for the first time. Higgins's compelling personality and furious temper make him awesome to Eliza. Even her success at the Ambassador Garden party does not ensure her complete transformation even then she desires Higgins's love in exchange for her servility.

Eliza’s transformation completes and once when she comes out successfully from Higgins intermediating influence. She asserts her will and betrays her independent soul in his discourse with Higgins in Act 5. She shows an indomitable spirit to survive on her own. His sense of self-esteem also arises in Higgins's respect for her and in exultation he calls her consort battleship a significant change from a squashed cabbage leaf. The metaphor consent battleship symbolizes the conflict of wills where both the wills are equally strong and superior. She is no more an object of serving a personal purpose, no more to suffer from humiliation at anyone when she is daring and not to be frightened, not to become an object at the experiment.

Ultimately, Eliza emerges as an independent woman who successfully has her way, marries Freddy, and settles down in her life. The battle of wills between a woman represented by Eliza and a genius represented by Higgins concludes the outcome establishes Shaw's philosophy of lifeforce depicting a woman as a triumphant homemaker and genius.

 Write a note on the emergence of medieval drama in England.

Note on the emergence of medieval drama in England

Drama in England had its origin in religion it was the result of the efforts undertaken by the church in the middle Ages to makes the church services more attractive and to emphasize moral lessons by showing the reward of the good and punishment of the wrongdoer. The church services were conducted in Latin, for the part, the congregation remained ignorant. The clergy, therefore, tried to enact some episodes from the life of Christ along with certain other scenes from the bible particularly the new testament. These enactments were performed on certain religious occasions. Thus Christians witnessed the representation of the story of Christ’s nativity, Easter that of Resurrection, and the other seasons enacted some events proper to them.

The actors in the severely religious performances or tropes were all priests or monks. These plays were usually performed inside the church, but gradually to appease more people the Latin dialogue was replaced by English plays but at present, there are only four such cycles in existence. These are the Chester cycle, comprising of 25 Plays the Wakefield cycle 32 plays, the York cycle has 49 plays, And the N-town cycle has 42 plays. By the middle of the 15th century, English Drama gradually began to substitute moral teaching for pure religious instruction. This new drama called morality was the second phase in the evolution of English theatre. The morality apparently evolved side by side with the Mystery although they were composed individually not in cycles. The moralities also had a religious purpose but their method of attaining it was more different. Thy mysteries tried to make the Christian religion more real to the unlearned by dramatizing significant events in Biblical history and by showing what these signified in terms of human experience. The moralities on the other hand employed allegory to dramatize the moral struggle that Christianity believed to be present in every individual. The character in the moralities underwent a drastic change, they were no longer Biblical figures but the personification of vices and virtues. The actors are every man and the qualities within him whether good or bad qualities as they push or pull him one way or the other the best known of the moralities is the everyman and another play belonging to the early part of the same century is the castle of perseverance. Apart from these, some of the well-known moralities are the pride of life and Hycks corner. In the castle of perseverance, man is represented as being shut up in a castle protected by virtues and besieged by vices, One of the most interesting features that were introduced in morality was the lovely personage called the vice. His business was to torment the virtuous and this character became so popular that the playwright began to experiment with it and he later became the model for a Shakespearean clown.

By the close of the 15th century, another type of play became popular. It was called the interlude. It probably meant a short play given in the middle of banquets of entertainments when a little fund was needed the Interlude may be considered a transitional form between morality and the Elizabethan drama. These plays were generally in the nature of either introduction or controversy. Most of this early Interlude was written with a mixture of prose and inferior verse. These plays usually discussed the contemporary topic or matters of general interest.

The chief developers of the Interludes were John Heywood and John Rastell who recognized that a play can also be justified by its ability to amuse. Heywoods Interludes were produced in the 1520s and 1530s, the most famous being the four P'S ( The Palmer, The Pardoner, Potycary, and The Pedler). Their characters are shown to be engaged in a sort of lying contest and it is presented against a Satire against a woman. Among other plays of the Heywood are - The Mery play between  Johan Johan, The Husbande, Tyb, his wyf, and Syr Johan, the Priest. John Rastell's interlude includes the nature of the Four Elements, the field of the cloth of gold, and gentleness and nobility. 

In the next phase of the development of English drama, the influence of classical literature was felt and as such by the 16th century a new type of drama evolved. This was the artistic period and in this phase, drama became radically different from its previous two stages. It now concentrates on representing human life as it is. It is during this phase that the first English comedy Ralph Roaster Doaster was written by Nicholas Udall. This was a true play with a regular plot divided into acts and scenes. The play was probably performed before 1556 and was soon followed by Gammer Gurton's Needle(1562) a domestic comedy that represented the life of the peasant class. In the same year, Thomas Sackville and Thomas Morton wrote the first English tragedy Gorboduc which was also the first play to be written in Black verse. Soon with the arrival of the Renaissance, English drama acquired classical elements and learnt the rules of constructing proper tragedy and comedy in the classical mould. In this way, English drama evolved from the simple religious representation to complex performance in the 16th century and waited to be perfected by the university wits and later, Shakespeare. 

 ASSESS ANDREW MARVELL AS A METAPHYSICAL POET?

Andrew Marvell as a Metaphysical Poet

In Andrew Marvell is found a poet of age whose conspicuous gift has secured for him a place next to John Milton among the poets of his age. His poetry bears out his Puritan patriotism, broad humanism, metaphysical wit, and commendable technique, with the novelty of the syllogistic structure in poetry. 

Andrew Marvell is usually classed with metaphysical poets, although the lyrical elements of the Elizabethans are notably marked in him. He is certainly one of the most successful lyricists, who flourished in the middle of the 17th century. Marvell’s great lyrics can be ranked with the best works of his contemporaries and bear fully the varied characteristics of lyrical poetry. In poems, like The Garden, his lyrical appreciation of natural beauty reaches the height of excellence.

The poet seems to throw himself into the very soul of the garden with the imaginative splendor of Shelley as seen in ode to the west wind. At the same time, his poem is as meaningful, as Shelley's as seen in ode to the west wind. At the same time, his poem is as meaningful, like Shelley's, although this is much more restrained in impulsiveness and much more intellectual in approach. The moral, derived by him from the quiet bosom of nature, is a deep as found in Wordsworth.

“Society is all but rude,

To this delicious solitude”. (The Garden)

As a poet, Marvell is as much versatile as Donne, He is, of course, no religious poet like him or his followers Herbert and Vaughan. He is chiefly a Secular poet with highly poetic speculations on the diverse matters of interest. But, like Donne, he is no less prominent, as a love-poet and among the metaphysical love-poets, his place is very close to Donne’s. two of his love poems, The Definition of Love and To His Coy Mistress, reveal the Marvell of his poetic treatment of love, which is an original as Donne’s. The poet proceeds to construct a sort of syllogism, a form of reasoning, in which the conclusion is deduced from different propositions. It is not the outburst of any passion, but the play of intellect that determines the strength of his love poetry.

Marvell possesses the characteristics features of a great poet. His poetry has both imaginative excellence and emotional profoundly, both lofty thoughts and melodious versification, both majestic utterances and intellectual restraint. He may not be claimed as an equal to his great contemporary Milton. But he comes very close to him in his scholarly element of wit and subtlety which is absent in Miltonic verses. He is also the just descendant of Donne as a metaphysical poet and displays like him, a rare combination of wit and seriousness, poetry and intellect. Some of Marvell’s remarkable poems include Horatian Ode upon Cromwell’s Return from Ireland, The Garden, Dialogue between the soul and the body, Bermudas, The Definition of love and a Drop of Dew, Eyes, and Tears, To his coy mistress and a good many other lyrics. It is, however, to be noted that all his poems clearly bear out that Marvell is a true poet who does not conform to any tradition but remains unmistakably new and individual.

 Literary Characteristics of the Restoration period

Literary Characteristics of the Restoration period

The Restoration of Monarchy in 1660 was a decisive event that had a tremendous impact on English life and literature. In fact, the two ages - The Puritans and the Restoration were utterly contradictory, and to pass from one to another was to experience a heavy shock.

In fact, the Restoration changed the character of the English people and even their tastes and manners, to some extent, but it could not revolutionize, in any unhappy manner, the essence of the English spirit in life. Amid its vulgarity and corruption, indecency, and moral looseness, the age, after the Restoration, waited for a restoration to health and sanity which took place after the bloodless Revolution of 1688.

Another literary expression of the age was perceived in the emergencies of the Satire. The conflict between political parties - the whig and the Tories - resulted in an interesting. But not always healthy, combat between literary men, supporting antithetical ideals. The genius of the English satire followed from the same and the age was known after the name of the greatest protagonist of satirical literature - John Dryden. Dryden's great satires - Absalom and Achitophel wonderful inspirations for the satiric literature of the age and immensely contributed to the development of the English satire of subsequent ages.

1. Restoration Poetry -

Satire is found to be the literary fashion of the age. Even the survivors of the Republican age, like Andrew Marvell, noted for excellent lyricism are found to have recourse to Satirical writing Marvell's later poems are satires in verse in which religious intolerance, autocratic tendencies, the lack of patriotism, and the license of the new order are delightfully scoffed at his Satire is found to have a rich sense of wit, and this makes him a quite diverting author.

The next time in satirical literature is John Oldham who is found to follow scrupulously the classical authors, like Juvenal, in his satiric writings - Satires against the virtue.

Sir Charles Sadly, John Sheffield, Shadwell, and several others are the minor satirical poets of the age. Their poetical works have little worth to deserve recognition and commendation.

In Dryden is seen the great beginning of English satirical literature, and this is found to have its wide expansion and range in the hands of swift and pope in the next century.

2. The Restoration Theatre:

In 1660 Charles II was restored to his throne with his return, drama too officially returned to England, after its official silence for long twenty-year under the authority of the puritans. The deprivation of dramatic entertainment for twenty-year did not certainly impair the appetite of the English people for this. But the plays which were presented on them were strikingly different from those of the Elizabethan age and of the early year of the Seventeenth Century. Something died out of England with the civil war. That sense of loss, profound yet intangible often, could be felt particularly in dramatists human outlook on life was no more. Drama became, to some extent pompous artificial, and to stagey. The theatre was more closely than ever the province of the court, court life, with all its affectations and vulgarity and vain-glories became the chief resources of the dramatists for their dramatic materials.

The nature of the Restoration audience was different from that of the Elizabethan age. The Restoration theatre became wholly a centre of vulgarity and low amusement for corrupt countries and rakish royalists. Consequently, there was extreme licentiousness in the dramatic works, particularly in the comedy of the age.

The theme of heroic plays was extraordinary-the adventures, made by certain heroic personalities. The theatre was packed with superhuman, melodramatic senses and bombastic expressions.

The Restoration theatre is, however, found to express its excellence chiefly in comedies. These comedies are found to have a manifold manifestation in the comedy of intrigue, the comedy of manners. Perhaps, the feelings of the people just released from the severe restriction of the Puritans could be echoed best through the witty, diverting light-hearted, comedies of the age.

Dryden again is found at the centre of the Restoration comedy, with his wild Gallant, marriage a lo mode, The Spanish Friar and the Assignation. His success is, however, nothing significant, although he displays brilliant effects in dialogue.

3. Restoration Tragedy - 

Dryden is the chief architect of the Restoration tragedy. His name is particularly remarkable in the English tragedy for his all for love, written in imitation of Shakespeare's great tragedy anatomy and Cleopatra in 1677. This is a quite successful production and maybe judged fairly along with Shakespeare's masterpiece, of course, Dryden's tragedy is a much narrow range and the central action is concentrated, in the manner of heroic play of the time, a conflict between love and honour. Shakespeare's moving and orderly blank verse is exchanged for a rather rhetorical and occasionally blank verse. Still the play, despite its difference from Shakespeare great Roman play, has Shakespearean dimensions in its theme, characterisation, without any doubt Dryden's finest play and probably the greatest Restoration tragedy. But Dryden's other tragedies Amboyna (1673), the truth found too late (1679), king of Portugal (1689), and Cleomenes, The spartan hero(1692) hardly possess the same vigour or fervour. Couched in bank verse, these plays mark a return to heroic sentiments and leave no favourable impression at the end. Altogether, except the play all for Love, Dryden's attainment in the Restoration tragedy is far from satisfactory.

4. Heroic plays of the Restoration:

The heroic plays of the Restoration appears a class by itself standing between tragedy and romance. It is rather a novel form of tragedy and romance. It is rather a novel form of tragedy, so apathy represented by such continental masters, a Racine, Goethe and Schiller the subject matter of such plays are found mainly chivalrous-honour, love and war. The conflict between love and honour is tried to be depicted in a romantic setting. The entire between honour and love in a heroic personality and personalities.

As an author of heroic plays, Dryden certainly exhibited his genius and craftsmanship. He had a wonderful sense of the theatre and clear perception of the taste of the audience. All his heroic plays are built upon a set plan, with a heroic theme, concerning the conflict between love and honour, the heroic personages of superhuman prowess and ideals and intensely interesting dramatic suspense, the vehicle of expression is not the blank verse, but the heroic metre.

By the side of Dryden, there arose and ranted some other heroic dramatists, must of whom had no worth to be mentioned at all. Elknatn settle was credited with two major plays, but none of them could win a lasting appreciation. Another dramatist John Crowe proved equally unimpressive, although his play the Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus Vespasian, writer after the model of Dryden's conquest of Granada by the Spaniards had temporary popularity on the stage. Nathaniel Lee displayed the flush of heroic play with the tragedy of Nero, emperor of Rome (1674), and Sophonisba or Hannibals overthrow (1675) and Theodosius or the Force of Love (1680). Thomas Otway won reputation, next to Dryden with his two masterpiece- Alcibiades(1675) and Don Carles, Prince of Spain (1676).

 Give an outline of the social, political, and religious background of Milton's times?

Give an outline of the social, political, and religious background of Milton's times

John Milton represents the dominant influence in a period of transition when England after making a compromise or fusion between the two forces of Renaissance and the Reformation was preparing for a confrontation in the areas of politics and religion. The growing excesses of the puritans had been restrained by the Elizabethan religious settlements but under the rule of James I, the puritans were subjected to perception. These caused many of them to migrate to America, but in England, the policies of the king united the puritans to form a powerful resistance against the monarchy. Evident classes were mostly puritans but their earnestness and strong business instincts had benefited greatly from the expansion of trade. This new powerful class offered serious challenges to the aristocracy. The incidence of the new taxes mostly in the shape of custom, a duty which James I had cleaved became more the aristocracy. The puritans managed to oppose this when they came to parliament in larger numbers. The theory of ‘ The Divine theory of Kingship’ was being openly challenged. Things came into crises after the death of James-I his son Charles I tried to get around parliamentary opposition by imposing new taxes without the sanction of parliament. In his effort to curb The growing power of the puritans. Charles was supported by the nobles as a class. The nobility resented the transfer of political power to the hands of the commercial gentry who now formed the majority in Parliament. This compelled the king and the parliament to a direct confrontation England now witnessed a conflict between the interest of the monarchy and the welfare of the people.

In this conflict between the puritan and his kings and his nobles, the puritan opposed everything that the Monarchy and aristocracy stood for. A part of this opposition was naturally direct to a cultural heritage of Renaissance which both the Aristocracy and Monarchy upholding. Thus, the puritans opposed the theatre’s which had been in great favor with the court. When they came to power in the parliament in 1639. One of the first things they did was to close down the theatres. This action was important considering the fact that Charles I queen was a French Princess and a Roman catholic addicted to the gaiety of the French court. This alliance with the King with Roman Catholic also removed all possibility of any compromise. To the Puritans the king and the Roman Catholic queen along with his pleasant seeking courtier must be eliminated if the country had to be saved. The puritans as a social class upheld a rigid moral court and adopted the same attitude to life. Puritanism was thus an attitude to life. Puritanism was thus an attitude that demanded sincerity and earnestness, in a matter of religion, politics as well as all affairs of life. This attitude was reflected in literature. In the form of the emphasis being shifted to prose from poetry. The majority of the poets were overshadowed by the dominant Milton who represented the puritan passion in his poetry. There was a small group of court or Cavalier poets who called themselves ‘Sons of Ben’ and included in writing right-hearted graceful lyrics, but the majority of literary output was in prose which was rich in variety as well as power. 

 Important Short Questions and Answers of English Literature

Important Short Questions and answers of English Literature

 Elizabethan Sonnets and Sonneters | English literature notes

Elizabethan Sonnets and Sonneters | English literature notes

Q. Write a note on the development of the sonnet as a literary form during the Elizabethan age?